home

=**Qualitative Research Methods - Fall 2011**= =**Annotated Bibliographies.**= =**I have posted our annotated bibliographies here for all to share. Feel free to discuss or add comments.**= **CLASS-WIDE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY** **EDPS 742, Fall 2011**

[|Alessandria, K. P.] **&** [|Nelson, E. S.] **,**//(2005).////Journal of College Student Development,// 46(1), 3-12 retrieved from Muse. First-generation American college students (students born in the U.S. to one or both parents born and raised in another country) had higher self-esteem than students who were not first generation Americans. (CG)

Armenta, B. E. (2010). Stereotype boost and stereotype threat effects: The moderating role of ethnic identification. //Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16//(1), 94-98. This is a quantitative study that investigated the effects of cultural identity on academic the performance of Asian and Latino students. This enlisted a sample of 106 Asian and Latino students in place them in one of two experimental conditions: One where their respective ethnicities were made salient, the other where their respective ethnicities were not made salient. The participants then completed a math test. The results confirmed previous data showing the effects of stereotype threat on academic performance. The implications for our studies may be that it is not always beneficial for students to have a salient cue of the racial or ethnic identity. (HH)

Asher, N. (2008). Listening to Hyphenated Americans: Hybrid Identities of Youth From Immigrant Families. //Theory Into Practice//, //47//(1), 12-19. This article discusses how students from immigrant families negotiate between different expectations and cultures at home and at school. The author talks about how students adopt hybrid identities in these “in-between spaces” where different cultures intersect. The article focuses on the development of an identity spectrum for a subgroup of Indian Americans and how this relates to an Asian American model minority stereotype. The study finds that, for these students, home represents the Indian end of their identity spectrum while school represents the American end of the spectrum. These findings are similar to many of our focus group participants’ statements regarding the role of home and school in shaping their identity. (AG)

Basford, L. (2010). From mainstream to East African charter: Cultural and religious experiences of Somali youth in U.S. schools. //Journal Of School Choice, 4//(4), 485-509. doi:10.1080/15582159.2010.526859

Using data from a 2-year qualitative study, this article compares the experiences East African Muslim immigrant high school students when situated in either a mainstream school or within a culturally specific charter school. Findings show that these students are affected by religious and cultural discrimination in mainstream schools and that attending a culturally specific charter school may promote positive intercultural competence in which students are able to build good self-concept and find comfort in who they are as East African immigrants, as Muslims, and as American citizens. (DF)

Borrero, N. E., & Yeh, C. J. (2011). The multidimensionality of ethnic identity among urban high school youth. //Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 11//(2), 114-135. doi:10.1080/15283488.2011.555978 NOTE: THIS STUDY NEEDED TO BE ODERED THROUGH THE INTER-LIBRARY LOAN. I HAVE THE PDF IF YOU WOULD LIKE ME TO E-MAIL IT TO YOU. (IB) For this study a short survey was given to over 400 high school juniors and seniors at 2 schools in the San Francisco area. They were asked questions on their collective self-esteem membership, school interest, student interest in learning, community engagement, and ethnic identity. The researchers did not find significant difference between gender and race so these variables were not looked at independently. If the students felt that they were a member of a cultural group they were more likely to feel that they had a strong ethnic identity. Interest in learning was positively associated with ethnic identity and resolution. The final finding was that community engagement was positively associated with ethnic identity exploration and resolution. One note that the authors pointed out was 76% of the participants identified themselves as East Asian American which may have impacted the results. (IB)

Bulhan, H. (1978). Reactive identification, alienation, and locus of control among Somali students. //Journal of Social Psychology//, //104//(1), 69. The researchers identified 3 types of Somali college students in America. They are; students who want to assimilate into western culture, students who totally reject western culture and students who idealize African culture but assimilate to western culture. They found that students identified with the latter two categories as opposed to assimilating into western culture. (CG)

Campbell, A. (2000). Cultural identity as a social construct. //Intercultural Education//, //11//(1), 31-39. Globalization has led to increasing numbers of people who spend time in multiple cultural contexts. Article argues that the ability to move across cultural boundaries is an advantage rather than a disadvantage. In a culturally diverse society, individuals may identify with more than one cultural group, may change their cultural identity depending on their context, or may be able to shift between different cultural contexts without losing their sense of individual identity. The article discusses how teachers and educational policies should adapt to these changing identities and includes case studies of students who exemplify this. The case studies include students with multiple international cultural identities (including South African/British, Chinese/Canadian, and Lebanese/Australian) who reflect the advantages associated with having multiple or shifting cultural identities. (AG)

Charmaraman, L., & Grossman, J. M. (2010). Importance of race and ethnicity: An exploration of Asian, Black, Latino, and multiracial adolescent identity. //Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16//(2), 144-151. doi:10.1037/a0018668 A mixed methods study was performed with high school students (n=923) to identify how Asian, Black, Latino, and multiracial adolescents identify their racial and ethnicities as well as the importance they subscribe to them. A self-report survey was distributed asking both multiple choice and open-ended questions. The grounded theory approaches was to analyze the open ended questions. Five themes were found in the participants’ responses: positive regard, acceptance of diversity, ambivalent regard, awareness of inequities, and disengagement. The overall findings of the study were that among all groups their racial-ethnic backgrounds were important pieces of their identity. Most expressed this as a positive. It was also found that female participants felt their racial-ethnic identity was of more importance than the male participants. (IB)

Chhuon, V., & Hudley, C. (2010). Asian American ethnic options: How Cambodian students negotiate ethnic identities in a U.S. urban school. //Anthropology & Education Quarterly//, //41//(4), 341-35 Cambodian students can either identify themselves as part of the larger “Asian” group or they can identify themselves as Cambodian. For reasons of practicality, Cambodian students tend to refer to themselves as Asian. However, when asked to describe themselves they referred to themselves as Cambodian and as different from the Asians. However, unlike the stereotype that Asians do well in school, statistics show that Cambodian students are underperforming. At school, officials classified Cambodians as Asians, but on the other hand gave fillipionios their own classification (even though there was a large group of Cambodians in the school). Students who did well in school tended to identify themselves as Asian and not Cambodian. School officials classify male Cambodian students as gang members, but in depth interviews with students showed that was not the case. (CG)

Choi, J. (2009). Asian English language learners’ identity construction in an after school literacy site. //Journal of Leisure Research//, 19(1), 130-161. This qualitative study focuses on four Asian American students who are English language learners who took part in an after school literacy program. They read multicultural literature and they engaged in a process of identity construction. In this article it describes for example how Asian American students are content because of a literacy program they partook in and no longer felt sad or alienated from their peers; because they now know English better than when first arriving to the United States, for instance: First year, I was very quiet. I didn’t say a word and people didn’t even hear me saying a word all year. The second year, I did a little bit (laughs), and the third year, this year, I was really loud you know a little bit not that much.…But I was like no one thought I was funny. Everyone thought I was [serious]. I thought I was serious too because I didn’t speak English and I wasn’t talking to anyone. And I got used to it, for two years, and this year, I have lots of friends. I have changed.-(3rd interview with Null) Researchers acknowledged that by the use of multicultural literature, free talk, and free writing via wiki and the contribution each immigrant student made to the program it helped them identify themselves as well as reconstruct their social and academic identities. Interviewees expressed their viewpoints in this article of American students on how their peers were uncouth and they also described their contrasting viewpoints on getting into college, the meaning of success, and the importance of knowing English in America. (JS)

Daha, M. (2011). Contextual factors contributing to ethnic identity development of second-generation Iranian American adolescents. //Journal of Adolescent Research //, 26(5), p543-569. This article talks about how Iranian immigrant students like to identify themselves as Persian and not Iranian. They also, for the most part, do not identify themselves as American unless they are overseas in Iran. Some of the students identified with their religion and not their ethnicity since they did not want to associate with Iran. (CG)

Deaux, K. (2008). To Be an American: Immigration, Hyphenation, and Incorporation//. Journal of Social Issues, 64//: 925–943. This article gives an overview of what it means to be an American, an immigrant, and a hyphenated American from a social psychology perspective. The author reviews the current political debate regarding immigration as well as the history of the immigration debate in America. The author discusses how a person’s definition of American, immigrant, and hyphenated American can change or fluctuate depending on their perspective. Presents an interesting review of the concept of the “hyphenated American” and suggests that such people are creating new forms of identity that are complex, situational, and subject to change depending on context, time, or to whom a person is speaking. The author seems to support our focus group findings that identity for hyphenated Americans changes depending on the situation. (AG)

Deaux, K. (2008). To be an American: Immigration, hyphenation, and incorporation. //Journal of Social Issues, 64//(4), 925-943. This article examines how unexamined biases and unspoken values inform the social categories of "immigrant" and "American" in the United States. The author draws on substantial research to analyze how both government policies and politicized discourse surrounding ethnic groups combine to shape perceptions of immigrants as either desirable or undersirable. To challenge the assumption that some ethnicities are more likely than others to speak English are instrumental in shaping these perceptions, the author shows that today's undocumented immigrant groups from developing countries are more likely to learn and speak English than earlier immigrant groups from Europe. Additionally, immigrants who consider themselves as "hyphenated" Americans often self-identify differently depending on whether the context is bureaucratic, friendly, or acquaintance-based. In particular she explores how in urban areas, "majority-minorty" populations and multiple national loyalties have become the norm. The article as a whole is a valuable summary of timely research in the area of immigrant identity and how their blended loyalties and identities manifest in behavior. (PR)

Deaux, K. (2011). An immigrant frame for American identity. //Applied Developmental Science 15 (2)// 70-72. This article focuses on the process of attaining a new social identity for immigrant coming to America. This article discusses three elements associated with this process;(1) diverse meanings associated with the American identity;(2) variations in immigrant experience, particularly as they vary by ethnicity; and (3) civic engagement by members of the immigrant community. Although participants in our study have been born in America or have been here for an extended period of time, this article discusses different experiences from a variety of ethnic groups which pertains to our participants. (AM)

Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = White? //Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88//(3), 447-466. Studied the qualities and beliefs considered to be essential to being American. Conducted multiple studies focusing on 3 ethnic groups – whites, Asians, and African Americans and observed the degree to which they are conceived of as being American. The findings suggest that being American is synonymous with being white. These findings appear to contrast with our focus group reports. (AG)

Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). American = white? //Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88//(3), 447-466. A series of 6 quantitative studies investigated the extent to which people in America with diverse ethnic origins are viewed as "American". In study 1, a survey of respondents identified "voting", "respecting laws" and "treating people equally" as the major defining characteristics of "being Americans". For the remaining studies, implicit association tests compared Yale university students' impressions of diverse faces as "foreign" or "American". African and Asian Americans as groups were less associated with the national category "American" than were White Americans. Asian American participants themselves demonstrated the "American = White" effect, although African Americans did not reflect this. Study 6 in particular found a strong divergence between explicit beliefs--that minorities are as "American" as whites--and implicit associations, in which faces of White athletes were seen as more "American" than black athletes. (PR)

Devos, T., Gavin, K., & Quintana, F. J. (2010). Say ‘‘Adios’’ to the American dream? The interplay between ethnic and national identity among Latino and Caucasian Americans. //Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16//, 37–49. Three studies were conducted to investigate the interconnections between ethnic and national identities among Latino Americans and Caucasian Americans using an Implicit Association Test (IAT). This test used stimuli related to the concepts of //Latino American// and //Caucasian American.// In the first study the authors investigate to what extent the attribute American was implicitly and explicitly linked to Latino Americans and Caucasian Americans. The results of this study revealed that Latino Americans viewed themselves as being less American than Caucasian Americans. The second study explores the correlation of the effects of the results in the first study. Latino participants showed a weaker national identification than Caucasian participants. The third study tests the impact of ethnic hierarchy on the relationship between ethnic and national identities. Similar results emerged; Latino Americans are less American than Caucasian Americans and associate themselves to a weak national identification. There are quite a few participants in our study who are of Latino background….can compare their views with the article. (EL)

Eschbach, K. (1998). Choosing Hispanic identity: Ethnic identity switching among respondents to high school and beyond. //Social Science Quarterly, 79,// 74-90. This study examines how Hispanic teenagers identify their ethnic using data from a survey called High School and Beyond (HS&B) project. This project was a longitudinal study of high school sophomores and seniors. Respondents were asked, “What is your origin or descent?”. There were multiple answer choices to choose from. Results showed that the Hispanic samples identified themselves differently in two different waves (1980 and 1982), 16% of e first-wave Hispanics were not Hispanic two years later; 21% of the second-wave Hispanics were not Hispanic two years before the survey. The study added more independent variables to analyze the data (SES, percentage of Hispanic students at school, language use, immigration generation, ethnic census division, gender, urban/rural, and switch identity) among Mexican, Puerto Rican, Other Hispanic, and percentage Not Hispanic in 1982. The results revealed that those who were English-speaking monolinguals and who attended schools with few coethnics were more likely to switch to non-Hispanic identity. This study is somewhat related to two of the focus group protocol questions, When are you aware of your race or ethnicity? and What are the different groups in your school? Who hangs out together? (EL)

Flanagan, C. A., Cumsille, P., Gill, S., & Gallay, L. S. (2007). School and community climates and civic commitments: Patterns for ethnic minority and majority students. //Journal of Educational Psychology, 99//(2), 421-431. 1,052 adolescents of diverse backgrounds (African American, Arab American, European, and Latino) were surveyed in this quantitative study to determine whether or not they held positive beliefs about America as a just and democratic society. Positive beliefs were correlated with a felt sense of belonging (community connectedness) to communities and school institutions, particularly if their teachers were perceived as fair and democratic. The study draws on political socialization theory to explain that students use their affective relationship to their immediate environment as a template when they form larger more abstract beliefs and "buy in" to the larger society. The authors discuss how forging these affective relationships should be more of a priority, but is often given short shrift compared to indices of academic achievement. (PR)

French,S.E.; Seidman, E.; Allen,L.; &Aber, J.L., (2006). The development of ethnic identity during adolescence. //Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 1-10.// This is a longitudinal study investigating the development of ethnic identities during adolescences over 3 years period focusing on two main factors of ethnic development; group-esteem and exploration. Participants were students attending elementary and Junior High schools with high concentration of student body eligible for reduced or free lunch. An ethnic identity measure was adapted for the purpose of the study. Group-esteem rises for both early and middle adolescent while exploration rises only for middle adolescent due to the possibility of going into a more diverse school/ setting. The study suggested that ethnicity becomes more salient with diversity. A comparison of group-esteem between racial and ethnic group indicated that African American and Latino Americans exhibited the lowest group-esteem, but a significant increase throughout the study suggested these students may be developing positive group-esteem through social influence from peers and popular media or parental influence. Changes in European American’s group-esteem are not significant due to the fact that their measure on group-esteem remain high throughout the 3 years period. This article relates to the our topic of identity formation through social influence, parental influence and media. (MS) [|http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.wexler.hunter.cuny.edu/ehost/detail?vid=8&hid=14&sid=cf60b791-c01e-42bf-bbdc-b577aa697c03%40sessionmgr15&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=pdh&AN=dev-42-1-1]

Gonzalez, A. G., Umana-Taylor, A., & Bamaca, M. Y. (2006). Familial ethnic socialization among adolescents of Latino and European descent: Do Latina mothers exert the most influence? //Journal of Family Issues, 27//(2), 184-207. The purpose of this article was to identify the impact the gender of Latino parents in a benthic family plays on their children. Four different groups were analyzed: The son and daughter were looked at when the father was Latino mother is white and when the mother was Latina and the father was white. The researchers’ focus was on which parents’ ethnic background had the most influence on the children of different genders. A self-report measure was used which asked the adolescents questions on overt and cover aspects of ethnic socialization in their families as well as questions on their ethnic identity. It was found that males had higher levels of familial ethnic socialization regardless of which parent was Latino. (IB)

Gonzalez, R. (2009). Beyond affirmation how the school context facilitates racial/ethnic identity among Mexican American adolescents. //Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences.// //31// (1), 5-31. While ethnic minority adolescents’ development is affected profoundly by discrimination, positive racial/ethnic encounters can also transform one’s identity. This is a mixed methods study with questionnaire data from 122 Mexican-American youth and 12 second-generation youth selected for interviews based on their level of academic engagement and experiences with negative racial/ethnic encounters in school. Findings suggest that youth felt a commitment to their ethnic selves when they participated in events that they perceived as dispelling stereotypes and when they had concrete experiences in which their bilingual competence was perceived as an asset. This study is useful to our research in that it deals with ethnic identity and the factors that affect it. (AM)

Huo, Y. J., & Molina, L. E. (2006). Is pluralism a viable model of diversity? The benefits and limits of subgroup respect. //Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9//(3), 359-376. This quantitative study collected survey data from phone interviews with 1,229 participants, to measure levels of "subgroup respect"--how much members of a group think they are respected by the whole society--among African Americans, Latinos and Whites. Data supported pluralist (multicultural) policies in that higher perceptions of subgroup respect among Latinos and African-Americans correlated with positive evaluations of America and all other ethnic groups. Among Whites however, personal respect (how they think other Americans feel about them as individuals) better predicted attitudes towards America as a whole. "Ingroup favoritism", or the extent to which one preferred members of their own subgroup, was lower among African Americans and Latinos who felt positively about America, but //higher// for Whites who felt positively about America. This compelling finding supports multicultural policies with the caveat that Whites possibly show contrary behavior in that they implicitly dentify their subgroup with the dominant culture as a whole. (PR)

Huo, Y. J., Molina, L. E., Binning, K. R., & Funge, S. P. (2010). Subgroup respect, social engagement, and well-being: A field study of an ethnically diverse high school. //Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology//, //16//(3), 427-436. The article reviews two common theories, or approaches, to diversity – assimilation and pluralism. Assimilation theory says that new immigrants should be encouraged to assimilate into the dominant culture. Pluralism is based on the belief that the dominant culture should embrace and celebrate differences among people. The article reviews recent research on the topic, suggesting that to focus only on a common identity of the whole group can make subgroup members feel separated and increase prejudice. In contrast, a pluralistic view, where subgroup identity is respected, can create more social harmony among all group members. The study examined 801 public high school students from greater LA and their responses to a questionnaire. Results confirmed that perceptions that one’s ethnic group is respected are associated with positive evaluations of both group authorities and ethnic outgroup members. Subgroup respect was associated with lower levels of school disengagement. This seems to support our focus group findings that positive views of diversity - including awareness of and respect for subgroups - contributed to an overall positive whole group identity for the students. (AG)

Irizarry, J. G. & Kleyn T. (2011). Immigration and education in the “supposed land of opportunity”: Youth perspectives on living and learning in the United States, //The New Educator, 7////(1):// 5-26 There are 5 types of immigrants, legal citizens, lawful permanent residents (have a green card), and illegal immigrants, temporary workers, and refugees. The largest numbers of immigrants are in the following states; California, New York, Texas, Florida, and Illinois. There are around 2.3 million children who were born in another country and around 16.3 million children have immigrant parents. Historically, Immigrants have lived in big urban cities, however nowadays immigrants are living in many different states and cities. For the most part, immigrant students do poorly in school, especially immigrant students from poor and Latino backgrounds. Immigrant students can go to newcomer schools, international schools, bilingual schools, and the most common one is ESL programs. Our research endeavored to address the following research questions: (1) what are the experiences of immigrant youth navigating living and learning in a new land, and what meaning do they assign to these experiences? (2) What are the implications of the subaltern perspectives of immigrant youth for informing policy and practice in schools? The study was on 7 students, 3 who lived in a more rural city and 4 who lived in an urban setting –the more typical place for immigrants to live. The study found that many immigrant students have a disturbance in family life as family is separated due to immigration issues. However, their parents really want their children to do well and excel in school. Students mentioned how their parents really influence them and push them to do well in school. Students also felt that their teachers do not understand them and their lives well enough. (CG)

Jahromi, P. (2011). American identity in the USA: Youth perspectives. //Applied Developmental Science//, 15(2), 79-93. A micro-contextual investigation on the formation of an American identity by young adults reveals several factors affecting its construction including attachments to the ideals of America. The mismatch between American ideals and reality, experiences with diversity, opportunities for civic and political participation, and ideas about concepts such as the American dream (YA).

Jensen, L. A. (2003). Coming of age in a multicultural world : Globalization and adolescent. //Applied Developmental Science//, //7//(3): 189-196. This article explores the implications of globalization for adolescent cultural identity formation. The author defines “cultural identity” and discusses how globalization has become an important factor in adolescent cultural identity formation. Reviews three emerging research issues (1) the extent to which identity formation is based on first hand interaction with diverse people or through indirect virtual reality/ media exposure; (2) the extent to which identity formation takes diverse developmental paths depending on the particular culture that an adolescent is exposed to; and (3) what gains/losses occur when an adolescent forms a multicultural identity rather than one based upon only a single culture. This article seems to support our focus group findings that increased exposure to students from different cultures has affected the formation of the students’ cultural identities. (AG)

Jensen, L. A. (2003). Coming of age in a multicultural world: Globalization and multicultural identity formation. //Applied Developmental Science, 7////(3):// 189-196 I particularly chose this article because it relates to one of my themes however, it does discuss issues of identity. The aim of this article is to explore implications of globalization for adolescent cultural identity formation. The main idea of this article is that adolescents form multicultural identities because they are surrounded by diverse cultural beliefs and behaviors. Three research topics are addressed: (a) the extent to which it is important whether a multicultural identity is based on first-hand versus indirect (media-based) interactions with diverse peoples, (b) how cultural identity formation may take diverse developmental paths depending on the particular cultures involved, and (c) gains and losses that occur when persons form a multicultural identity rather than an identity based primarily on one cultural tradition. This article is helpful because it discussed identity, diversity, and the immigrant experience for adolescents. (AM)

Jensen, L.A., (2003). Coming of age in a multicultural world: Globalization and adolescent cultural identity formation. //Applied Developmental science// //7(3): 189-196.// The author explores adolescents cultural identity formation. The author suggested that adolescents’ multicultural identities was basically a result of growing up and interacting with diverse cultural beliefs and behaviors. Reviewing previous work, 3 issues related to cultural identity formation emerged and suggested for further research. Theses issues include examining the extent to which multicultural identity is based on first-hand vs media-dased interactions, how cultural identity formation takes diverse paths depending on the culture they are involve in and what are the gain and losses of a person when forming multicultural identity vs identity based on one’s own culture. The author suggested further research in identity formation is needed. (MS) [|http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.wexler.hunter.cuny.edu/ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=19&sid=c76c4efe-9064-4ac5-878f-acf6b104ce52%40sessionmgr10&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=10130797]

Jensen, L. (2003). Coming of age in a multicultural world: Globalization and adolescent cultural identity formation. //Applied Developmental Science, 7//(3): 189-196. This article investigates the influence of globalization on the formation of cultural identities during adolescence. The author proposes that both dominant and minority cultures are increasingly globalized, and the extent of globalization depends on several factors. Individuals who experience diverse cultures indirectly via mass media or as a novelty tend to form more subjective and idiosyncratic identities as opposed to those who experience them first hand as part of a community. Additionally, as adolescents are exposed to more diverse cultural practices, identity formation becomes more complex. Also, both gains and losses can result--as immigrant and minority students broaden their identities to become multicultural, they may simultaneously lose coherence. Calls for further research advocate multiple methods and subject groups (parents, teachers and youths) as necessary to get a full range of perspectives on how globalization influences identity. A compelling finding cited showed that adolescents' "local" indigenous identity often coexists with a global identity which they draw upon when encountering others whose only common reference points are global. (PR)

Jensen, L.A. (2008). Immigrants’ cultural identities as sources of civic engagement. //Applied Development Science//, //12//(2): 74-83. A qualitative study examines immigrants’ civic engagement or disengagement at a cultural dimension. Semi structured one-on-one interviews were conducted on 80 adolescents and parents immigrants from India and El Salvador residing Washington D.C. The study suggested that majority of immigrants were engaged at the community level than the political level. Only one third of immigrants engaged in activities that focus on cultural issues or occur through cultural organizations. Holding one’s tradition and values does not make one less part of American civil society and in contrast, civil engagement were ground in one cultural and immigrant sense of self. A few of the motivators for civic engagement identified in the study were tradition of service, bridging communities and appreciation of American democratic rights. (MS) [|http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.wexler.hunter.cuny.edu/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=14&sid=cf60b791-c01e-42bf-bbdc-b577aa697c03%40sessionmgr15&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=31974540]

Juang, L., & Syed, M. (2010). Family cultural socialization practices and ethnic identity in college-going emerging adults. //Journal of Adolescence, 33//(3): 347-354. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.11.008 This article looked at how family cultural socialization related to the ethnic identity of Asian American, Latino, White and Mixed Ethnic college students (age, M=22.11, SD=2.81). African Americans were excluded from the study because too few responded. A survey was given to the participants asking them to rate their ethnic identity and family ethnic socialization. It was found that family cultural socialization related to ethnic identity, for all groups the higher the family cultural socialization the more likely the individuals was to explore their ethnic identity. It was also found that females had higher levels of commitment to their ethnic identities than males. The researchers think this is so because males may be given greater freedom to interact with peers and develop their identity through those relationships rather than at home. This study shows that as emerging adults the family socialization continues to play an important part in individuals’ identities. (IB)

Juniu, S. (2000). The Impact of immigration: Leisure experience in the lives of South American immigrants. //Journal of Leisure Research//, 32(3), 358-381. This qualitative study explores the effect of immigration on immigrants’ leisure experiences; predominantly a select group of South American immigrants living in the United States were studied. Seventeen participants (8 males and 9 females) were interviewed about their experiences; data revealed that upon entering the United States their lifestyles changed. Results showed that social class is more important than ethnicity when it comes to an individual’s leisure behavior. This article addresses plausible factors for immigrants’ choice of recreational activities; such as Marginality theory, Ethnicity theory, and Acculturation and Assimilation. Findings in this study confirm the belief that many of these immigrants migrated to the U.S. in search for a better opportunity and education, and in wanting to fulfill their dreams. Findings also show upon assimilating to their host culture many immigrants kept traditions from back home as a way of preserving their cultural identity (selective acculturation). In regards to leisure behavior this study shows that although immigration did lead to a better life, lack of time and increased work affected immigrants leisure behaviors. Findings show that immigrants with higher levels of economic assimilation (assimilating to middle class individuals in the U.S.) were less likely to report more constraints and have more access to recreational activities and developing more contacts with individuals’ of the dominant culture, unlike working class immigrants. In contrast, working class immigrants had trouble assimilating to American culture because they were not as proficient in speaking English. Immigrants acquired the language as means of survival and their lack of good English skills hindered their integration into American society and the finding of decent jobs. They sought out individuals of their same ethnic group and thus it leads them to have fewer opportunities in participating in leisure activities or social interaction with other people from different ethnic groups in America. (JS)

Junn, J., & Masuoka, N. (2008). Asian American identity: Shared racial status and political context, //Perspective on Politics, 6//(4), 729-40. A study for investigating the racial identification and consciousness of black and Asian Americans through analysis of results from a survey experiment. Through random sampling, a total of 416 blacks and 354 Asian Americans were selected for the study. Participants were measured on their racial identification and consciousness developed for the study. The treatment group was exposed to pictures of US presidential cabinets officials, depending on the respondents’ race, they were exposed to cabinet officials of the same racial identification as the respondents. Findings indicated that Asian Americans has a stronger perception of racial group identity when presented with an Asian cabinet official. Findings also indicated a significant influence of the photographs on responses questions related to linked fate. In addition, findings also indicated that Asian Americans has a lower racial political identity compares to blacks. These findings suggested that presenting a political role model affects an individual’s racial identity and consciousness. (MS) [|//http://www.apsanet.org/media/pdfs/popdec08junn.pdf//]

Kasinitz, P., Mollenkopf, J., & Waters, M.C. (2002). Becoming American/Becoming New Yorkers: Immigrant incorporation in a majority minority city. //International Migration Review//, //36// (4), 1020-1036. Arguing against the current and dominant theory how immigrants are assimilated into American society by their interaction with a core group of white Americans, this article posits several factors as influencing second-generation immigrant experiences in New York including the history of immigration among whites, by the predominance of ethnic minorities in New York City’s population and institutions today, and by the interaction among immigrant and native minority groups (YA)

Kim, B. K., Brenner, B. R., Liang, C. H., & Asay, P. A. (2003). A qualitative study of adaptation experiences of 1.5-generation Asian Americans. //Cultural Diversity And Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9//(2), 156-170. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.9.2.156

This qualitative study of ten Asian American college students who immigrated to the United States as a child or an adolescent identified four domains of adaptation experiences for participants: preimmigration experiences, acculturation and enculturation experiences, intercultural relationships, and support systems. Participants reported that English proficiency played a significant role in their initial adjustment, and most reported feeling identified with both the U.S. and Asian cultures. Some participants reported having experienced racism in the past. Many participants noted that they currently have no difficulty establishing friendships with culturally different persons but tend to feel most close to friends of a similar background. (DF)

Kim, H. Y. (2011). Parents’ perceptions, decisions, & influences Korean immigrant parents look at language learning & their children’s identities. //Multicultural Education, 18 (2//),16-19. The article focuses on the critical role of parents' perceptions, decisions and influences in the success of first language (L1) education in the U.S. The author states that L1 literacy education often depends on the English language's native community and/or the parents as a source of support for the education. The author mentions that the beliefs of the English language learners (ELLs) parents are crucial in the development of ELL identity and language skills. The author also notes that efforts are needed to preserve L1 education in the country. This article is useful for some because it addresses a parent’s role in the lives of immigrant children. I know some those in the class had some themes that pertained to parental perceptions. (AM)

Kumar, R., Seay, N., & Karabenick, S. (2011). Shades of white: Identity status, stereotypes, prejudice, and xenophobia.//Educational Studies: Journal of the American Educational Studies Association, 47//(4), 347-378. Middle school students in ten Midwestern schools were studied to determine the relationship between middle-class white students and their Middle Eastern peers. More specifically, the impact that both school and society have on these relationships was addressed. White students stereotyped Middle Eastern students as being angry students who do not care about school. Although white students had these stereotypes, they also felt threatened by the idea that their white population was becoming the minority in their school. White students also reported finding that their teachers are not as tough on their Middle Eastern peers because they are afraid of being accused of prejudice. (LN)

Lee, L. (2009). American immigrant girls’ understanding of female body image in Disney: A critical analysis of young Korean girls’ perspectives. //European Early Childhood Education Research Journal//, 17(3), 363-375. “Korean girls are really pretty and they are not fat at all. They are much prettier than Ariel. American people eat a lot of junk food so get really fat”. Based on one of our focus groups I found this study to be relevant, because I recall that there were references to Disney, the media, and body image. This qualitative study discusses how young Korean girls view American culture in contrast to their home culture however researchers analyze their notions on female body image by getting their opinions on popular Disney characters from American films. In this particular study the strong advocacy of Korean beauty in contrast to popular characters suggests that Korean immigrant girls have not fully assimilated to American culture, and adhere strongly to their host countries culture and their Korean culture in their own identities. Findings show that when Korean girls where interviewed they showed a sense of pride in their own ethnicity and there is a superiority in Korean beauty in contrast to American female protagonists in Disney films. (JS)

Li, Q. (2010). A cultural study of Chinese American women's self-identification and education. //Frontiers of Education in China, 5//(2), 186-196. This study used interviews to investigate how Chinese-American women developed their identities in America as being daughters of immigrants. The primary questions focused on how do Chinese-American women come to identify as such and act it in their daily lives? How does the process of self-identification interact with their interpretations of how they are perceived and recognized? How do they incorporate educational messages from their family and schooling into their own understandings of the social world they live in? How have their understandings of their identity changed along the path with their encountering different social contexts and institutions? This study has implication in our studies because it can provide information that can elucidate how some second-generation students identify with their parents’ nationality (HH)

Maramba, D.C. (2008). Immigrant families and college experience: Perspectives of Filipina Americans. //Journal of College Student Development, 49////(4), 336-350.// This is a qualitative study that examines the ways Filipina Americans negotiate their home environment and college experience. Three themes emerges from data analysis of data collected from individual interviews involving questions related to their ethnic identity, family, friends and culture influences on their experience. The three themes include family/parental influences, home obligation/ gender differences and importance of negotiating their identity within the context of their home and college experience. Findings from the study suggested that family influence had a significant effect on students decision making and identity as Filipina American. Relating to our study, the study investigate the experience of college student and the influences on their identity formation. (MS) [|http://web.ebscohost.com.proxy.wexler.hunter.cuny.edu/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=25&sid=5a2f5d97-a014-4336-8814-7c7fa8929d50%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=eric&AN=EJ803071]

Markstrom, C. A. (2011). Identity formation of American Indian adolescents: Local, national, and global considerations. //Journal of Research on Adolescence (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 21//(2), 519-535. This is a prospective paper that aims to map identity formation among Native American adolescents based on several levels of social contextual influences. These include types of identity, dynamics of identity, and sources of influence. This paper may provide some guidance in understanding how many of the students formed their own cultural identities. (HH)

Mehra, B. (2003). Recognizing, respecting, and representing: Three R's of Asian Indian cultural identity in American schools. INCOMPLETE REF <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This qualitative study analyzed Asian-Indian parent and student relationships with schools and how Asian-Indian students believe they are perceived in American schools. Students and teachers representing four Midwestern schools in the United States participated in the study. It was reported that most students long to “fit in” with a group at their school. It was also shown that there is often a disparity between school and home. The cultures represented by the students and their lives at home did not mirror the cultures represented at school. (LN)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Min Zhou, M. (1997). Growing up American: The challenge confronting immigrant children and children of immigrants. //Annual Review of Sociology//, Vol. 23, 63-95. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Focusing on the gap created by the lack of research into the experiences of immigrant children, this article relates four main points that lead to a deeper comprehension of this overlooked population by relating:
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">The shifting patterns of how the children are accepted into their new context
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">How current ideas about how immigrants adapt are being challenged and the establishment of alternate models to explain immigrant adaptation.
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">The potential contributions of current research to the study of immigration.
 * <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Salient points from previous research findings and their potential applications in future research. (YA)

Moreman, S. T. (2011). Qualitative interviews of racial fluctuations: The how of Latina/o-white hybrid identity. //Communication Theory, 21//(2), 197-216. This study focuses on the fluctuations of racial identity among mixed-race students (Latino & white). This study draws upon performance theories of race and analyzes how these participants work within and outside of the designations of race in America. This paper addresses the tensions that these individuals face but also brings light to the value of their experiences. This study can provide our studies with information on how students navigate within or completely ignore the racial designations placed before them. (HH)

Morrison, G. Z. (2010). Two separate worlds: Students of color at a predominantly white university.//Journal of Black Studies, 40//(5), 987-1015.

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">African American, Asian American, and Latinos participated in a qualitative research study to analyze their experience attending college at a school in the northeast that has a predominantly white population with only 6.7% of color. Through interviews, it was concluded that there was a strong “awareness” which created two different groups: white and non-white. The one exception to the rule was the non-white students with the lightest skin who felt the most like they fit in with the white student population. The students with darker skin felt the most frustrated by their feelings of feeling like they did not belong and the students with medium to light skin felt satisfied with their feeling of belongingness. (LN)

Nasir, N. S., McLaughlin, M. W., & Jones, A. (2009). What does it mean to be African American? Constructions of race and academic identity in an urban public high school. //American Educational Research Journal, 46//, 73-114. This study investigated how African American high school students (sophomores and seniors) view their racial identity in relation to school achievement and academic identity. The data was drawn from a 2-year study on youth connection and disconnection in an urban public high school attended by primarily African American students. The methods of research consisted of a combination of focus groups, observations, and interviews of case study students. Findings for this study revealed that African American students’ associated their racial and ethnic identity with their academic setting and engagement varied. The methodology of this study was similar to our research. (EL)

Ngo, B., (2009). Ambivalent urban, immigrant identities: The incompleteness of Lao American student identities, [|//__International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE)__//], 22(2), 201-220. Retreived from EbscoHost Researchers site literature that proposes that people can have multiple or hybrid ethnic identities and that ethnic identity can be situated. The researcher proposes that ethnic identity can be sub-divided, inconsistent and incomplete. The author claims that immigrant youth are changing what it means to be an urban and immigrant youth to more ambivalent identities. The study was on 2nd generation Lao students from blue collar working class families. Students felt that they were not Lao or American. The researcher found that while students acted and dressed in the “American” way, others at school still thought of them as Lao but copying Americans. The researcher follows a few students and discovers that students themselves often have contradictory and incomplete identities. (CG)

Park, G. (2011). Becoming a 'model minority': Acquisition, construction and enactment of American identity for Korean immigrant students.//Urban Review, 43//(5), 620-635. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This study aimed to assess how recent Korean immigrants assimilate into the American culture in schools. Through interviews that took place across one and a half years, it was found that students aspire to fulfill the stereotype that has been created by Americans. In fact, it was reported that Korean immigrants even look down on fellow Korean immigrants who do not live up to their stereotype. (LN)

Park-Taylor, J., Ng, V., Ventura, A. B., Kang, A. E., Morris, C. R., Gilbert, T., et al. (2008). What it means to be and feel like a “true” American: Perceptions and experiences of second-generation Americans. //Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology//, 14, 128-137. This qualitative study investigated the definition of being a “true” American and how the impact of 9/11, the war on Iraq, and other personal experiences in fitting in or being excluded from the American identity. Participants were 10 graduate students who were classified as 2nd-generation young adults. The study used the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method to examine the experiences of the participants and how it impact their views of fitting in or not fitting in the American identity. The findings in the study revealed that democracy, equality, and freedom are typically mentioned as beliefs and values of a “true” American. The war in Iraq and the impact of 9/11 changed the way people defined who is a true American, in that it either heightened discrimination or it unified the community. This study connects to our topic of being “American”; participants in our study also associated democracy, freedom with the word America. (EL)

Paxton, A., & Wade, P. (2011). Binational Americans: In their own words. //Global Public Health: An International Journal for Research, Policy and Practice, 6//(3), 320-333. doi:10.1080/17441692.2010.489053 NOTE: THIS STUDY NEEDED TO BE ODERED THROUGH THE INTER-LIBRARY LOAN. I HAVE THE PDF IF YOU WOULD LIKE ME TO E-MAIL IT TO YOU. (IB) This was a very interesting qualitative study in which 10 graduate students and young professionals who were American citizens but had at least one parent who was not from the United States reflect on their experiences growing up navigating their binational identities. Three themes which were found were: Ownership of parents’ cultures, International travel and cultural sensitivity, and Situational and culturally determined notions of race. Some of the overall interesting ideas which were present were they saw their background as positive and had better understanding of the different types of cultures. They felt their foreign born parent(s) were less American. They did not feel it good for immigrants to live in communities from their home country. They had to balance their parents culture and language and were outsiders in their parent’s community if they were not fluent. Another frequent statement was they knew there was a difference being biracial in America and other countries, (usually America was less open). (IB)

Phinney, J.S., Cantu C. L., & Kurtz, D. A**.** //(1997).// Ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among African American, Latino, and white adolescents. J//ournal of Youth and Adolescence, 26// //(2): 165-185.// Researchers found that one predictor of self-esteem were ethnic identity. In the white or Caucasian group having an American identity was strong predictor self-esteem. Researchers found that ethnic identity cannot explain the whole variance so there must be other significant predictors of self-esteem. (CG)

Phinney, J.S., &, Navarro M.D. (1997). Variations in bicultural identification African American and Mexican American adolescents. //Journal of Research on Adolescence//, 7(1), 3-32. This qualitative study examined 46 middle and working class Mexican Americans, and 52 middle class African American students from an ethnically diverse high school. Participants were interviewed on ethnicity, the concept of America, or being American and completed questionnaires on ethnic identity and American identity, as well as self-concept and anxiety. Qualitative analysis revealed three types of identification patterns: blended biculturals (which showed a strong sense of being American while affirming their ethnicity), separated adolescents (they expressed little or no identification with America), and alternation biculturals (distinctly more ethnic than American). In sum, findings showed that the majority of minority youths combine their sense of being ethnic and American, however their sense of being bicultural varies. (JS)

Rodriguez, L., Schwartz, S. J., & Whitbourne, S. (2010). American identity revisited: The relation between national, ethnic, and personal identity in a multiethnic sample of emerging adults. //Journal Of Adolescent Research, 25//(2), 324-349. doi:10.1177/0743558409359055

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This mixed-methods study looked at the ways in which meanings and valences of “American identity” relate to ethnic and personal identity, using a multiethnic sample of 287 college students. Subjective meanings of American identity were assessed using four qualitative questions that were coded thematically: characteristics that define the typical American, characteristics that describe ways in which one is American, qualities that make one something other than American, and the degree to which one feels American. Many similarities, along with some differences, were found across ethnic groups. Ethnic minorities felt less American than Whites and believed that, regardless of their citizenship, they are not perceived as American. Participants believed that to be American, one must sacrifice a connection to family and community. (DF)

Rodriguez, L., Schwartz, S. J., & Whitbourne, S. K (2010). American identity revisited: The relation between national, ethnic, and personal identity in a multiethnic sample of emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25(2), 324-349. This study investigates the ways “American national identity” is defined by a sample of 287 college students (Black, Latino, and White) from university students from Miami, FL. Four open-ended questions were asked to measure American identity (qualitative measure). To assess ethnic identity, the Multi-Group Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) was used. To assess personal identity, the 12-item identity subscale from the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory was used. The results of the study found that the Whites tend to give more positive responses when compared to Black participants when asked what characteristics or traits would they associate with the word “American”. Whites were less significantly attached to their ethnic identity than the other two racial groups. Personal identity was positively related to feeling American only for Whites. This study is similar to our focus group protocol, with the first question on defining America leading up to other questions related to American identity. Many participants felt more attached to their ethnic identity. (EL)

Rousseau, C., Gauthier, M., Lacroix, L., Alain, N., Benoit, M., Moran, A., Rojas, V., & Bourassa D. (2005). Playing with identities and transforming shared realities: Drama therapy workshops for adolescent immigrants and refugees. //The Arts in Psychotherapy//, 32(1), 13-27. This article focused on the readjustment of newly coming immigrant teenagers by having them participate in a drama workshop. Near the end of the article researchers described various activities in the program using qualitative assessment (the effect it had on immigrant adolescents). The goal of this program was to ease teenagers into their new environment through group work involving identity issues. Its main goal was to improve intergroup relations in multiethnic schools. This article goes into describing identity issues adolescents face because of their age group and it being a time period of shift and change (Who am I?), and it becoming a more arduous process when readjusting to a new environment and having to face the conflict between two cultures and trying to find an identity. Although this study took place in Canada, I found it to be relevant because it addressed topics of immigration, student identity and teachers perceptions of immigrant children participating in this workshop and making them understand their students better. Findings showed that by students acting out their experiences and having their stories being played back to them it made them for example feel less alone. Lastly through playing back their stories they get to see the overlap between distinct identities and question their host country and home country identity. (JS)

Rutchick, A.M., Collette, E.P. (2010). Ironic effects of invoking common ingroup identity. //Basic and Applied Social Psychology//, 32, 109-117. This quantative study discusses establishing a common ingroup identity in order to reduce intergroup bias. This article is broken down into two studies, study number one analyzed whether people of different subgroups (Democrats) define their superordinate group (Americans) differently. Researchers wanted to investigate that even if we hold the same superordinate identity (American), does political affiliation (Democrat or Republican) change the viewpoints how others will perceive them and their concepts of being an American (superordinate identity). More explicitly “Researchers sought out to demonstrate that people believe that Republicans and Democrats have different conceptions of the superordinate group (Americans)”. Results indicate that if political affiliation is known then outsiders have clear expectations of how they define American identity. In Study 2 researchers wanted to see the consequences of the results in Study 1, persuasive petitions were given to participants regarding voting. Study 2 found that differences in common ideas of American identity negatively impacted the petitions success when a speaker (outgroup member) invoked a common ingroup identity. (JS)

Schildkraut, D. J. (2007). Defining American identity in the twenty-first century: How much “there” is there? //Journal of Politics//, 69, 597-615. This study examines whether the definition of American identity have changed in recent years since the United States had became more ethnic diverse. Data derived from a national random-digital-dial (RDD) telephone survey with oversamples of blacks, Latinos, and Asians. There were a few categories of questions (ethnoculturalism, liberalism, civic republicanism, incorporationism, and contested/multiple). It investigated whether people of different backgrounds define American identity differently. The findings of the article reveal that Whites are more likely to identify themselves as American than Latinos or immigrants. This study relates to our research about being American (e.g., the content of American identity, why did people define American identity the way they do). (EL)

Schildkraut. D. J. (2007). Defining American Identity in the Twenty-first Century: How much “ there” is there? //The Journal of Politics, 69(3), 597-615// A study based on national telephone survey with an oversample of blacks, Latinos and Asian examines whether ethnic diversity in the US is changing how the content of American identity is defined. To test the claim, the study presents an empirical assessment of the multiple tradition theory for understanding how Americans view the content of American identity. The four components of American identity is being discuss and used in the study. Items related to ethnoculturalism, liberalism, civic republicanism and incorporationism is being measured and evaluation for the study. These items were being analyzed across different ethnic groups. Results indicated a complex view of norms defined being American and it is difficult to be reduced into a single measure of “Americanism”. The study suggested a need for further study on how people define American identity. Relating to our study, the findings here highlighted American ideals and norms for defining American Identity. (MS) []

Schmid, C. L. (2001). Educational achievement, language-minority students, and the new second generation. //Sociology of Education,//, 71-87. This study investigates the internal and external factors that affect the academic performance of the new second-generation students. Some of the hypothesized factors are social class and language proficiency. This paper can provide some context on what some of the difficulties second-generation students face. (HH)

Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., & Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the concept of acculturation: Implications for theory and research. //American Psychologist//, //65//(4), 237-251. doi:10.1037/a0019330 This article tries to redefine what and how acculturation occurs. Instead of thinking that acculturation means total assimilation into American culture and discarding ethnicity, researchers now agree that one - (Incomplete) (CG)

Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamboanga, B. L., Szapocznik, J., (2011). How selective is acculturation? Broadening our perspective. //American Psychologist//, 66(2), p155-157. This article is response to an article saying that parents do encourage adolescents to gravitate toward specific aspects of their cultural heritage and to avoid specific aspects of the receiving cultural context, and vice versa, with respect to these cultural domains. These researchers found that parental socialization is closely related to all three dimensions of heritage- cultural identity. However, these researchers found that the parents’ influence on their children’s acceptance or rejection of American culture is not as great as thought. While the ethnic culture may have some effect on the children it is not a guarantee of what identity the children will adopt. (CG)

Sears, D. O., Fu, M., & Henry, P. J. (2003). The origins and persistence of ethnic identity among the new immigrant groups. //Social Psychology Quarterly, 66//(4), 419-437. This quantitative study focused on the ethnic identies of the “new immigrant” population of Asians and Latinos. The study aimed to see how these students’ cultural identity changed over time. The study showed that students’ cultural identies were strengthed due to factors pertaining to recent immigration and not incidences of discrimination. The implications of this study for our research is that it may shine more light on some the responses of the students to questions about ethnicity. (HH)

Slobodan, D. (2003). Assimilation of immigrants: Implications for human capital accumulation of the second generation. //Journal of Population Economics,// 16(4), 831-845. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Focusing on how the rate of integration of immigrants through different dimensions (e.g., earnings, human, capital, occupational status, consumption, housing, social customs, values and attitudes, language proficiency, family relations and fertility, and educational attainment of children) influences the degree of human capital accumulation of immigrant children. The author argues that fast integration in some dimensions is used to increase the amount of human capital growth of immigrant children, while simultaneously decreasing it in other dimensions (YA).

Smith, T. B., & Silva, L. (2011). Ethnic identity and personal well-being of people of color: A meta-analysis. //Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58//(1), 42-60. This meta-analysis summarizes research examining the relationship between the constructs of ethnic identity and personal well-being among people of color in North America. Data from 184 studies were analyzed. The results provided evidence showing that ethnic identity is more strongly related to positive well-being than to compromised well-being. Overall, the corpus of research reviewed consisted of correlational designs; limited scholarship has addressed causal mechanisms, mediating factors, or psychological functions of ethnic identity across different social contexts. This study can help us understand why some students may feel the need to identify with certain cultural/racial groups despite not being obviously a member. (HH)

Spencer, M.E. (1994). Multiculturalism, "political correctness," and the politics of identity. //Sociological Forum,// 9(4), 547-567. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">The author describes nativism, cosmopolitan liberalism, and multiculturalism, as expressions of American views in the politics of identity. Nativism is portrayed as defining the American identity in a restrictive way that resulted in attempts to limit immigration and naturalization, while cosmopolitan liberalism is depicted as having contrasting and somewhat all-embracing ideals. Multiculturalism and political correctness are viewed here as integral parts of the latest incarnation of a perspective on American society; one centering on the struggles of formerly-excluded groups to create and build new identities (YA).

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Stepick, A. & Stepick, C.D. (2002). Becoming American, constructing ethnicity: Immigrant youth and civic engagement. //Applied Developmental Science, 6 (4),// 246-257. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This article discusses the limited literature on immigrant youth community involvement. It also discusses the previous literature of immigrant youth in the United States, specifically the last great wave of immigration approximately 100 years ago and determines that today’s immigrant youth are Americanizing. It addresses issues of the U.S. society treating immigrant youth as different and the immigrant youth responding with pride by defending their “home” culture and their uniqueness. In response to these forces, young immigrants uphold various identities, at times identifying with their “home” culture and at other times identifying with the United States. This article is useful in that it discusses issues of identity, and when students consider themselves “American” and when they identify with their “home” culture. (AM)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Stewart, D. L. (2009). Perceptions of multiple identities among black college students. //Journal of College Student Development 50//(3), 253-270.

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A qualitative study of 13 self-identified Black and African American1 college students across three institutions revealed important findings relevant for understanding the multifaceted and complex ways in which these students both perceived and made meaning of the multiple facets of their identities. Implications for the ways in which social identity factors are seen as cooperative and coherent are discussed. Also, provocative findings related to the incorporation of non-unitary facets of identity are shared. (DF)

Stntikus, T., & Nguyen, D. (2010). Universalist and differentialist approaches to instruction for high-school-age immigrants: Tensions in practice and policy.//Bilingual Research Journal, 33//(3). <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This study analyzed a 3-year qualitative study to learn about the impact of district and school policy as well as teachers and parents on the early schooling experiences of immigrants. Pacific Northwest School was observed by researchers for 2 years and then researchers followed a smaller group of students into their first year of high school. Theories universalism and differentiation were used to study the interactions. One finding is that older immigrants don’t benefit from teaching as much as younger immigrants because the focus has been on younger immigrants. School officials feel that immigrants should be held more accountable for their knowledge instead of being pushed through the system. (LN)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Suarez-Orozco, C. (2004). Formulating identity in a globalized world. In M. Suarez-Orozco & D. Qin-Hilliard (Eds.), //Globalization: Culture & education in the new millennium// (pp. 175-202). University of California Press & Ross Institute. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Based on a study of 400 youths from a variety of origins, this chapter highlights the differences between first-generation immigrants, whose challenge is to survive and adjust to new contexts, and the second-generation, who may have more material security yet have difficulty forging a unique identity. The explores the psychological factors involved in identity formation, distinguishing between "ascribed" identities imposed by adolescents by their family and peer groups, and "achieved" identities which they choose for themselves. Analysis of the data showed that a majority of the youths surveyed felt that the dominant culture--which the author proposed acted as a "poisoned social mirror"//--//held negative views of immigrants. Participants reacted by either creating adversarial identities, engaging in "ethnic flight" or assimilation, or more positively nuanced transcultural identities embracing adaptive aspects of both home and dominant culture. Looking towards the future, the author discusses how an emerging global culture is changing for the better the ways in which immigrants construct their identities. (PR)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Tindongan, C. W. (2011). Negotiating Muslim youth identity in a post-9/11 world. //The// //High School Journal, 95 (1//), 72-87.

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This article addresses issues that some communities struggle with in a post 9/11 world. It discussed identities before and after 9/11 and how some are moving toward a new way of being members of those communities and members in U.S. society. As students in public schools Muslim youth engage in challenges unique to those with their religious, cultural and/or national backgrounds. It conceptualizes possible frameworks for discussing the experiences of Muslim immigrant children in the U.S. This article is pertinent to the topic in that it discusses identities of an immigrant population as it grapples with an issue that most specifically affects New York City youth. (AM)

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Shin, N. (2007). An examination of ethnic identity and self-esteem with diverse populations: Exploring variation by ethnicity and geography. //Cultural Diversity And Ethnic Minority Psychology//, //13//(2), 178-186. This article points out that even if an ethnic group is considered a minority in America there are some geographic areas of the country where that group is a majority. Therefore, this study looked at two different geographic regions. The sample for this study was taken from 3 universities, 3 in California and 2 in the Midwest. The participants were asked to write what ethnicity they considered themselves to be and to answer the questions according to how they perceived their ethnicity. They were asked questions about their ethnicity identification and self-esteem. It was found that self-esteem varied among the different ethnic groups and geographic locations. (IB)

Vandeyar, S. (2012). Immigrant students’ shifting identifications in South African schools.//International Journal of Educational Development, 32//(2), 232-240. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This narrative method case study researched the experiences of black immigrants in South Africa through observations and interviews. Students, parents, and school authorities all participated in this study. Although the findings indicate that observable characteristics were the biggest indicator of which immigrants were able to assimilate into South American, skin color was not a major indicator. Immigrants’ desire to fit in physically with the South African population proved to be politically motivated. Most black immigrants could not relate to the South African black population and were embarrassed by them although they also had a sense of solidarity with them because of the sharing of a continent. The immigrant students also described themselves as being between two cultures, not identifying with being entirely South African or entirely from their country of origin. (LN)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Waters, M.C., & Jimenez, R. (2005). Assessing immigrant assimilation: New empirical and theoretical challenges. //Annual Review of Sociology//, (31), 105-125. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">A review focusing on the integrative strategies of immigrant groups and their receptive contexts. The authors evaluate research on four standards of assimilation including socioeconomic status, spatial concentration, language assimilation, and intermarriage. Also considered are new immigrant entry points in the south and mid-west, and the ways sociologists gauge integration of immigrants. Authors record the fluctuating landscape of immigrant settlement and evaluate current research in this region. In addition, the authors argue that studying immigrant integration in these new entry points is critical to the formation of new ideas and theories about immigrant integration. Lastly, the paper suggests that a prolonged period of immigrant renewal that cold potentially alter the ways of integration., and proposes that sociologists use birth cohort and generation as chronological indicators of integration (YA).

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Way, N., Santos, C., Niwa, E. Y., & Kim-Gervey, C. (2008). To be or not to be: An exploration of ethnic identity development in context. In M. Azmitia, M. Syed, & K. Rad- macher (Eds.), //The Intersections of Personal and Social Identities. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 120,// 61–79. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">This study looked at personal and ethnic identities of forty African American, Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Chinese American high school students, and how these identities intersect. The researchers identified that for the Puerto Ricans, the intersection of their personal and social identities influenced by a positive peer climate and a resistance to being Dominican. For the other ethnic groups, the intersection of personal and social identities was influenced by resistance and accommodation to negative stereotypes projected on them by their peers and, for African Americans, themselves. (DF)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">Wright, B.L. (2011). I know who I am, do you? Identity and academic achievement of successful African American male adolescents in an urban pilot high school in the United States. //Urban Education// 46(4) 611–638. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16px;">This study explores racial-ethnic identity and academic achievement of five black male students in 11th and 12th grade in an urban high school. The purpose of the study is to gain an understanding of how academically successful black male adolescents understand their social and academic lives to achieve school success while also maintaining a healthy racial-ethnic identity (HREI). The authors found that the participants developed complex ideas of what it means to be black, male, and successful. This article also focuses a lot on identity issues and how students develop their own identity within a school environment. Although it does not talk about immigrants, some points about identity issues are relevant. (AM)

Xiaowei, S., & Babrow, A.S. (2007). Challenges of adolescent and young adult Chinese American identity construction: An application of problematic integration theory. //Western Journal of Communication,// 71(4), 316-335. This qualitative study draws from previous studies that have researched the social construction of a multicultural identity. This current study focuses on the experiences of five Chinese Americans between the ages of 18 to 20. All these students were from a middle class background and their families immigrated to the U.S. as graduated students. All participants were born in the U.S. and English was their primary language, and spoke Chinese at home. Interviews were conducted and questions such as for example “Could you describe any positive experiences of being bilingual?” were asked. Findings show that although born here a common theme that was found when discussing identity is that these students expressed a desire to be a normal American: Here I’m Chinese, in China I’m an American. So I can never be 100% of anything. (Carol) This article addresses the struggle or opinions a student has about having two different identities, and belonging to two different cultures (American and Chinese). Findings show that adolescents struggle with the concept of a singular identity, while young adults achieved a hybrid one. However the construction of identity is not stable, findings show that “hybridity arises comfortably for some interviewees when they consider identity in the abstract (the best of two worlds), but the meaning of hybridity is more difficult to maintain when interviewees recognize concrete challenges (e.g., that members of home culture treat one as an American due to one’s accent)”, thus identity is quite dynamic. (JS)

<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yoon, B. & Haag, C. (2010). Visible or invisible? Korean high school students’ current schooling experiences in the United States. //Current Issues in Education//, //13//(2), 1-40. <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The researchers studied eight Korean students in 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th grade, to investigate their current schooling experiences and explore how their identities as Koreans or Korean Americans were formed and shifted while they engaged with American teachers and peers in mainstream contexts. The participants were grouped as either newcomers, arriving in the United States within the last 2 years) or 1.5/2nd generation, either born in the United States or having moved here more than 10 years ago. Newcomers were found to have a strong desire to assimilate to mainstream culture and attempted to do so by heavy association with American classmates. 1.5/2nd generation participants lived bi-culturally with dual identities as Korean and American and shifted their identities according to their convenience. (DF)